Theories of Skill Acquisition

As the owner of a sports performance facility I, unsurprisingly, am always thinking of individuals acquiring skill in the context of sport. In almost every sport there is a method of skill development implemented that is meant to simulate challenges that the sport itself will impose on the individual without the individual actually partaking in the sport. Examples of this are a golfer hitting buckets of balls on the driving range, a baseball player taking batting practice or throwing a bullpen, a basketball player performing ball handling drills, a tennis player practicing their serve, etc. An obvious limitation to performing these drills is that the situations encountered by the individual in the sports previously mentioned rarely, if ever, play out in precisely the manner they are simulated during practice.  

Understanding that this limitation exists in most of our practice sessions should allow us to ask ourselves how we can better prepare athletes for the unpredictable environments encountered in competition. Regarding skill acquisition, Magill and Anderson (2017) suggest that there are two dominant theories that exist: The Motor Program-Based Theory (MPBT) and The Dynamical Systems Theory (DST).

The MPBT suggests that any skill is under the control of executive function. (Magill & Anderson, 2017) Skills therefore, need to be stored as memory and called upon when needed. Richard Schmidt has provided the most support to the way we presently think about the MPBT. (Magill & Anderson, 2017) Schmidt, when considering the MPBT of skill acquisition hypothesized that in every individual exists a general motor program (GMP). This is described by Magill & Anderson (2017) as “a mechanism that could account for the adaptive and flexible qualities of human coordinated-movement behavior.” Schmidt’s theory suggests that the GMP controls a class of actions that a person must retrieve from memory and then add movement-specific parameters to fit the context of their particular situation. (Magill & Anderson, 2017) It is my opinion that the MPBT provides support to the acquisition of skills that rely on open-loop control systems. In an open-loop system, feedback is not required to alter movement instructions that were provided prior to initiation of the movement. (Magill & Anderson, 2017) An open-loop system would likely rely on attractor states, which can be thought of as states of behavior that represent the individual’s preferred actions. (Magill & Anderson, 2017)

The DST is a multidisciplinary theory that sees human movement control as a complex system that changes in response to external stimuli in a non-linear fashion. (Magill & Anderson, 2017) Concepts critical to the DST are constraints, self-organization, patterns, and stability. (Clark, 1995) Newell (1986) suggested that constraints could be related to the organism, the environment, or to the task at hand. In the DST it is thought that “chaos” is created in the form of constraints and the individual is then forced to analyze the chaotic information and self-organize their own strategies in the form of patterns to overcome the specific challenges they are provided with. The DST suggests that it is these new patterns formed through self-organization that ultimately lead to a change in behavior. (Clark, 1995) In my opinion, the DST aligns itself more with skills that rely on closed-loop control systems. Closed-loop systems rely on the initiation of a movement, but also the adaptation of that movement strategy based on the feedback they receive through the peripheral nervous system before the movement is completed. (Magill & Anderson, 2017) It’s worth noting that the DST also refers to attractors as stable collective states of the dynamical system. (Clark, 1995) These states are described as ones that are either not perturbed in any way by external stimuli or in such a small manner that the system maintains its original trajectory. (Clark, 1995)

As I previously noted, I believe skills that require less feedback and are performed in a more stable environment will likely lend support to the existence of a GMP being called upon to rehearse a previously practiced skill. Throwing a dart at a dart board, driving a golf ball down a straight fairway on a day with no wind, or bowling on an unaltered lane are all skills that come to mind when I think of the MPBT. My opinion is that the DST plays itself out more often in sports and skills that take place in environments with more unpredictable variables. When I think of shorter statured individuals in basketball becoming great ball handlers and shooters I think of the DST and a constraints-based approach.

I think that as practitioners trying to understand which theory is more efficacious we should consider that the answer to the question is dependent on context. The context of the skill an individual is seeking to achieve and the individual him/herself matters. Skills that take place in more stable environments can probably be trained and learned in a manner that aligns itself with the MPBT. That said, though they may be few, we should also try and determine which variables are dynamic regarding the skill and train them with the DST in mind. In contrast, skills that take place in an ever-changing environment should be trained as such, but we should be cognizant that those skills are sometimes performed in a stable environment. Understanding the skill being acquired/taught/learned and the individual that is trying to acquire/learn the skill should provide us with the information necessary to do the best job possible when working to assist individuals trying to acquire new skills.

References

Clark, J. (1995) On Becoming Skillful: Patterns and Constraints. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66(3), 173-183.

Magill, R. A., & Anderson, D. I. (2017) Motor learning and control: Concepts and applications (11^th ed.) New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Newell, K. M. (1986) Motor development in children: Aspects of coordination and control. Boston, MA: Martinus Nijhoff.

5 Lessons I Learned from Dad

“You have never truly lived until you’ve done something for someone who can never repay you,” is a quote that some attribute to Mother Theresa and some to John Bunyan. Regardless of who’s given credit for it, on Father’s Day (and Mother’s Day) it carries a little more meaning for me personally than others. Growing up, my dad and I never shared many mutual interests outside of our love for athletics. My brother on the other hand, who loved to get up early and put the boat in for a long day of fishing, sit in a tree stand for hours on end waiting for a trophy whitetail, or walk seemingly endless fields of CRP in search of upland game always had interests he could share with my Dad.

I think having one son with a disinterest for hunting, fishing, and watching the outdoor life network on loop always bothered Dad a bit. Not because he wanted either of us to be exactly like him, but because he felt missing that father/son connection that comes so naturally through shared passions meant that he, in some way, was missing something. I decided to write this today, for my dad (and all dads) as a tribute to all of the important life lessons he taught me that I can never repay him for, and a reminder that he, in his pursuit of being an extraordinary parent and role model, missed nothing. 

(Side note: in his defense, I vomited almost every time I got on a boat between the ages of 10 and 16 so he was up against a stacked deck.)

These are 5 lessons my Dad taught me that I am forever grateful for and will carry with me for a lifetime.

1.     Hard work always pays.

My dad is an entrepreneur. He’s been a general contractor for over 40 years and I can’t think of one day in my almost 30 years of knowing him, that he took a day off because he didn’t feel like working. He never complained. He just got up when his alarm went off, put his boots on, and went about his business. He always told me that no matter what my life endeavors were, I should never let anyone outwork me and I should never complain about having to work. He taught me to be grateful for the opportunity to work, because some people don’t have the freedom to work for the things they want. Because of my dad and the example he set I have a passion for hard work. I have a passion to out-work everyone around me and I am forever grateful for that. Hard work doesn’t always pay concretely, but at the end of every day being able to put my head on a pillow knowing I gave that day everything I could is enough payment for me, and I learned that from Dad.

2.     If you want something done, do it yourself.

My mom is one of the most career driven women I know. When she decided to quit her job and go back to school to earn her Master’s Degree in Nurse Anesthesia, my Dad responded how he always responded: He made a plan and worked through it. Because of competitive acceptance rates my mother had to further her education out of state. With only one income in the family we sold our current home and move into a smaller more accommodating home for my Dad, brother, and I. I tell this story because not only did my Dad facilitate and manage getting my mother settled into her new apartment out of state, he handled a majority of the moving duties into our new home by himself. I’ll never forget when he told my brother and I how our new family laundry system was going to work. After a 5-minute tutorial on how to load and operate the washing machine and dryer he said, “With your mom at school, if you want your laundry done… do it yourself.” I was like 12. At the time I thought it was egregious, but now understand how powerful of a lesson that was. I know now as an adult that if I want something to get done I should first try and do it myself. This has undoubtedly made me a better employer. I try to never ask anything of my employees that I won’t do myself, and I learned that from Dad.

3.     Anything worth doing is worth doing right.

I remember finally being old enough to go to work with my dad. I was probably 11 or 12 when he first paid me to walk around building sites, pick up scraps, and throw them in the dumpster. At the time, I didn’t know that the $5.00/hour rate he paid me was below minimum wage (11 year olds aren’t particularly well educated on union organization). All I was really focused on was that 5 x 10 = 50, and the new 2K basketball video game was $50.00. Therefore, 10 hours of picking up garbage earned me hours of happiness in front of my DreamCast. As I got older I was given more responsibility at my dad’s job sites. I didn’t work much for him, but I remember that when I did I would get incredibly frustrated with his attention to detail. Everything had to be measured and lined up within the 1/16 of an inch. Boards had to be handed to him with the crown up, not down, and so on and so forth. Just thinking about putting a level up to a deck railing and the bubble not being exactly where it should be makes me nauseous as an adult. My dad would start a project and work on it for hours only to find an error and start all over in order to make it right. He was always more focused on the quality of his work than he was the quantity of work. He used to say things like “Your reputation is everything,” and “It doesn’t matter how much money you make if you can’t be proud of your work.” These are lessons I will never forget, and I learned them from my Dad.

4.     Never apologize for being yourself.

“To thine own self be true.” -Shakespeare

My dad didn’t verbally push this lesson and he’s definitely never read Shakespeare, but he taught it to my brother and I whether he meant to or not. My brother and I are what I would describe as “Type A” individuals. We decide we like something, and dive head first into it. A big part of our acquisition of this trait is assuredly from genetic disposition as my mother is exactly the same way. In a bit of a piggy back from lesson #3, my parents always taught us that so long as it didn’t affect others negatively, we should pursue what we enjoy whole-heartedly and unapologetically. Dad has never allowed anything or anyone (and he’s been through a lot) to hold him down or keep him from being a great person and a better father. He has given my brother and I everything we could possibly ask for to be happy and successful in this life by simply allowing us to be comfortable with ourselves and our passions. This is a lesson that has led to me being misunderstood by some, but has better allowed me to form meaningful, lasting relationships with likeminded individuals. Having those meaningful, life long bonds is incredibly more valuable to me and I learned that from my Dad.

5.     Put others first.

I saved this lesson for last, because if there is a life lesson that my Dad personifies more than any other, it is this. His entire life has been dedicated to doing things for others. I’ve always told people that if you needed $100.00 and he had $99.00 he would give you the $99.00 and sell the shirt off his back to get the other $1.00. He truly is cut from a different cloth than most. He has persevered through so many adversities that would crush most other individuals. Through it all he has managed to remain the most selfless individual I know. If there is one lesson I hope to carry with me for my entire life it is that the willingness to put your own problems on the back burner in order to help someone else through their own is the ultimate sacrifice one can give in this life. My Dad has sacrificed so much of his own time and energy to ensure my brother and I could have everything we possibly needed and because of that I am humbled and overwhelmingly proud.

I’ve always told the young people that I work with that if end up being half the man that my dad is it would be my life’s greatest accomplishment. I am sure that it’s a feat I will assuredly fall short of reaching, but it will not keep me from trying as I know that is what will make him most proud. I feel as if every parent, no matter how old, yearns for reinforcement that they have done the right things by their children. I am not a parent (unless dogs count), but I know that there is no manual or road map available for you guys. It is a constant “wake up every day and figure it out as you go” endeavor. Because of that I felt compelled to write this on this Father’s Day for my Dad and for ALL OF THE DADS out there that are doing the very best they can. At the end of the day, that’s all you can do, Life will inevitably get in the way of your plans and stumbling your way through it is the rule, not the exception.

To my dad, I love you and even though you still can’t get me to go fishing, know that the life lessons you’ve taught me mean more to me than being a proficient angler ever will. To you and the rest of dads out there killing it, Happy Father’s Day. Sons and daughters, give your dad a hug today and tell them you love them, they deserve it.

As always, thank you for reading.

Caleb Heilman

Do men ALWAYS have an athletic advantage?

The unique physiological characteristics that make men inherently different from women makes the topic of sports performance interesting to discuss. Women were not permitted in large numbers to competitive sports until the 1970’s. (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015) Because a higher number of participants would increase the level of achievement in sport this social construct has undoubtedly held women back regarding achievement in sport. There is plenty of evidence, however, to suggest that women are making up for lost time.

Increased testosterone levels lead to increased bone formation and protein synthesis which ultimately produces larger bones and more muscle mass in men compared to women. (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015) This hormonal discrepancy, which also provides men with a distinct advantage regarding the acquisition of fat-free mass (FFM), will most likely always provide men with an advantage over women in sports in which strength and power are the primary drivers of performance. That said, there is evidence to support that when these hormonal discrepancies are controlled for, the differences between men and women regarding the acquisition of strength disappear. There is evidence that suggests when lower body strength is expressed relative to body weight, women are only 5-15% weaker than men, but when it is expressed relative to FFM, men and women are equals regarding force production per unit of muscle cross-sectional area. (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015)

There are a few competitive events in which women’s unique anthropometry and physiology may offer them a distinct advantage over their male counterparts. As women’s participation in athletic competition continues to grow, this becomes more evident. According to Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill (2015) V02max in highly trained individuals only differs from 8-15% when comparing women to men, and much of the difference is attributable to women’s greater FFM, lower hemoglobin levels, and lower maximum cardiac output. This relatively small gap in V02max differences combined with their typically smaller body sizes, which require lower metabolic demand, may actually make them more resistant to fatigue and give them a leg up in ultra-endurance competitions.

An analysis of the data between 1971 and 2012 by Zingg et. al. (2015) showed that performance differences between sexes decreased linearly in 50-mile events and 100-mile events during that period of time. This linear decrease suggests that women are reducing the “sex gap” regarding performance at these distances. (Zingg et. al., 2015) Arnal et al. (2015) observed less peripheral fatigue in the plantar flexors and greater decreases in maximal force loss of the knee extensors after a 110-km ultra-trail-running race in women when compared to men. This provides more evidence that women may be more resistant to fatigue and clarity to the increasing number of reports of women outperforming men in extreme duration running races.

As women continue to get more involved in competition I have no doubt in my mind the sex performance gap will continue to narrow. The unique differences in male and female physiologies are well documented and we can use the knowledge of this science to better position athletes for continued success. Men may continue to have a distinct advantage in athletic events dominated by our anaerobic energy systems, but when it comes to long duration aerobic dominant events, women are literally and metaphorically taking the lead.

References:

Arnal, P.J., Rupp, T., Feasson, L., Cartier, R., Gergelé, L., Verges, S., Martin, V., Millet, G.Y. (2015) Are Females More Resistance to Extreme Neuromuscular Fatigue? Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 47(7), 1372-1382.

Kenny, L.W., Wilmore, J.H., Costill, D.L. (2015) Physiology of Sport and Exercise (6^th Edition). Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.

Zingg, M.A., Knechtle, B., Rosemann, T., Rust, C. (2015) Performance Differences between sexes in 50-mile to 3,100-mile Ultramarathons. Journal of Sports Medicine, 6, 7-21.